In 1984 the latest key event in the story of the Nights occurred with the appearance of an edition by Muhsin Mahdi, professor of Arabic at Chicago and Harvard. He began work in 1959, and painstakingly compared a family of Syrian manuscripts, including that used by Galland, in order to reconstruct the common ancestor of all the Syrian manuscripts. He then did the same with the Egyptian manuscripts. Then by comparing the two reconstructed versions, he reconstructed a common ancestor, or 'archetype'. Mahdi speculated that this archetype was itself copied from a mother source in Syria in the thirteenth or early fourteenth century, and that this was based on an earlier version of the Nights from Iraq. His edition was published as Alf Laylah Wa Laylah.

Recommended Reading

Presently he began wandering about the highways and market streets of the capital crying aloud: "Ho! Who will exchange old lamps for new lamps?" But when the folk heard him cry on this wise, they derided him and said, "Doubtless this man is Jinnmad, for that he goeth about offering new for old."

Works of Art Inspired by the Nights

Literature:

Geoffrey Chaucer: "The Squire's Tale" from "The Canterbury Tales" dates from the late 1380's and has a close resemblance to the story of "The Ebony Horse" and "The Tale of Taj al-Muluk and the Princess Dunya". In fact the latter tale must have been the origin of the section of "The Squire's Tale" that tells of a magical ring that can interpret the language of birds.

Thomas Paine: "The Age of Reason" (1796) - "Take away from Genesis the belief that Moses was the author, on which only the strange belief that it is the word of God has stood, and there remains nothing of Genesis but an anonymous book of stories, fables, and traditionary or invented absurdities, or of downright lies. The story of Eve and the serpent, and of Noah and his ark, drops to a level with the Arabian Tales, without the merit of being entertaining, and the account of men living to eight and nine hundred years becomes as fabulous as the immortality of the giants of the Mythology."

Adam Oehlenschläger: "Aladdin of the Wonderful Lamp" was composed by the Danish poet in 1820.

Charles Dickens: "A Christmas Carol" (1843) - "'Why, it's Ali Baba.' Scrooge exclaimed in ecstasy. `It's dear old honest Ali Baba. Yes, yes, I know. One Christmas time, when yonder solitary child was left here all alone, he did come, for the first time, just like that. Poor boy. And Valentine,' said Scrooge,' and his wild brother, Orson; there they go. And what's his name, who was put down in his drawers, asleep, at the Gate of Damascus; don't you see him. And the Sultan's Groom turned upside down by the Genii; there he is upon his head. Serve him right. I'm glad of it. What business had he to be married to the Princess.'
To hear Scrooge expending all the earnestness of his nature on such subjects, in a most extraordinary voice between laughing and crying; and to see his heightened and excited face; would have been a surprise to his business friends in the city, indeed."

Charlotte Brontë's most famous novel is without doubt Jane Eyre, but her greatest is arguably "Vilette" (1853). This excerpt is from chapter 16:
"I thought of Bedreddin Hassan, transported in his sleep from Cairo to the gates of Damascus. Had a Genius stooped his dark wing down the storm to whose stress I had succumbed, and gathering me from the church steps, and 'rising high into the air,' as the eastern tale said, had he borne me over land and ocean, and laid me quietly down beside a hearth of Old England? But no; I knew the fire of that hearth burned before its Lares no more - it went out long ago, and the household gods had been carried elsewhere."

George Meredith: "The Shaving of Shagpat: An Arabian Entertainment" was a fantasy novel written by the British poet and novelist in 1855 in a style imitative of the Nights.

John Meade Falkner's classic children's novel "Moonfleet" first appeared in 1898. Right on the second page John Trenchard reveals that, of the books he loved to read as a child, the Arabian Nights was his favourite; and that Aladdin was to inspire him in his later adventures. He finds his incarcerating 'Aladdin's cave' in my home town, and trapped in the vault under Moonfleet church he nearly dies; however unlike Aladdin, the booty that he finds himself buried with is liquor.

James Joyce: "Ulysses" (1922). Among the myriad of literary and musical references that pepper the pages of Joyce's classic are references to the Nights. In one passage from Circe Lionel Bloom becomes Harun al-Rashid as he loses himself in the city of Dublin: 'Incog Haroun al-Raschid, he flits behind the silent lechers and hastens on by the railings with fleet step of a pard strewing the drag behind him, torn envelopes drenched in aniseed.'
Joyce acknowledged the popularity of the Nights at the period in which this novel is set (1904). In Eumaeus we discover that one of the mariners sharing the cabman's shelter under the railway bridge with Stephen Dedalus and Lionel Bloom had read the Arabian Nights' Entertainments in the dark, at the risk of his eyesight; and in Ithaca we learn that Bloom had attempted to write a song for a very popular pantomime production of Sinbad the Sailor. This 'fact' from Ulysses was based on a real pantomime production that was staged in Dublin in 1893.
At the end of Ithaca, as Bloom finally enters the marital bed at the end of a long day, carefully so as not to disturb his wife:
'Going to dark bed there was a square round Sinbad the Sailor roc's auk's egg in the night of the bed of all the auks of the rocs of Darkinbad the Brightdayler.'

Najib Mahfouz: "Arabian Nights and Days" (1982) starts where the Nights leaves off, telling us what really happened to Shahrzad and Shahriyar and several of the famous Nights characters. All these characters now live in one medieval city, and their individual stories are linked by one major theme - corruption. The accusing finger of the author seems to point through the book towards those in positions of responsibility today. Each story ends with the downfall of several high officials; and even the bloodthirsty Sultan is made to feel very uncomfortable in his position. In fact the constant and bewildering stream of governors and Chiefs of Police must have given the citizens apoplexy.

The first and most striking thing one notices when first encountering this novel is the way that it is written. To the reader unfamiliar with the work of Mahfouz (or any contemporary Arabic novelists) the different style of writing is noticeable as soon as one opens the book. His sentences are sparse, and he give the reader no more than is absolutely necessary for the telling of the story. Nothing is wasted - every word is important. Wit abounds throughout, not only in the inherent cynicism of authority, but also in the way the author plays with the familiar characters. I shall never think of Dunyazad in the same way again; and one of my favourite passages involves Sindbad the Porter, who, encouraged by the stories he has heard from the mouth of Sindbad the Sailor, goes on his own travels; returning towards the end of the novel to make a report of his adventures to the Sultan.

Salman Rushdie: "The Satanic Verses" (1988). Simultaneously one of the most brilliant and notorious novels of the twentieth century. Bollywood film-acting megastar Gibreel Farishta and Anglicised Indian actor Saladin Chamcha are kidnapped for many days when their aircraft is hijacked. Caught in a tale of Nights-like wonder, Farishta's madness progresses, and he dreams that he is the archangel Gibreel, involved in reciting the word of God to the Prophet.
'On the shelf of Changez Chamchawala's teak-lined study, beside a ten-volume set of the Richard Burton translation of the Arabian Nights ... stood a magic lamp, a brightly polished copper-and-brass avatar of Aladdin's very own genie-container: a lamp begging to be rubbed ... The promise of the magic lamp infected Master Salahuddin with the notion that one day his troubles would end and his innermost desires would be gratified, and that all he had to do was wait it out...' - The Angel Gibreel
The last chapter of of Rushdie's work is called "A Wonderful Lamp", the title being symbolic of the reconciliation between Saladin Chamcha and his father Changez before the final outcome of the novel.

Even more reliant on the tales of the Nights is "Haroun and the Sea of Stories" (1990) by the same author. This book, intended (in my estimation) for mature children of upwards of twelve, combines elements of the Nights and the Indian story collection known as the 'Ocean of Story' and, together with the whiff of Gulliver's Travels, whips them all together into a fantasy involving the story-telling father Rashid Khalifa and his son Haroun (the names might sound familiar!). Rashid and Haroun are magically whisked away from an unhappy existence on earth and up to earth's second moon, Kahani (Hindustani for 'story'), where they become involved in a battle to protect the evil power of Chup from polluting the magical waters of the Ocean of the Streams of Story. The inevitable happy ending is infused with a wonderfully fresh feeling of genuine forgiveness. Throughout the adventures the inquisitive Haroun ponders the rhetorical question "What's the use of stories that aren't even true?" There is also an implied allegorical relationship between the lack of vigilance of the Guppees in their responsibility for protecting their Ocean of Stories and the modern apathetic disregard of the ancient sources of wisdom, such as the Arabian Nights.

Music:

Boïeldieu's opera "Le Calife de Bagdad". French composer François Boïeldieu's opera was first performed in 1800, and being "fashionably exotic", was such a great success, that Cherubini asked him 'Are you not ashamed of such undeserved success?' and took him on as a pupil. Nowadays it is only the overture that is remembered.

Weber's opera "Abu Hassan" was written in 1810 and is based on the comic tale of "The Story of the Sleeper Awakened" (see above). According to one source, "The music is skillfully written, imaginative, sprightly and full of good tunes."

Schumann's oratorio "Das Paradies und die Peri" (Paradise and the Peri), written in 1843, was based loosely on the Nights fad. It is an important large scale work with seven solo roles and substantial choral pas sages; and the scoring is colourful, depicting scenes ranging from Paradise to heroic battles and plague-struck desolation, with touches of Oriental colour. The Peri, an elf-like spirit, seeks admission to Paradise, for which the price is the gift Heaven appreciates most; she brings a patriot's lifeblood, a lover's self-sacrifice, but finally succeeds with the tears of a murderer moved to repentance by the sight of a child praying.

Cornelius' opera "Der Barbier von Bagdad". Based on a tale from "The Hunchback", this opera by German composer Peter Cornelius was first performed in 1858. It is still regularly performed in Germany.

Bizet's opera "Djamileh" failed when first produced in 1872. It is set in the court of Haroun Al-Rashid. Haroun, believing himself not to have the capability of love, is however loved by a slave of his named Djamileh. He frees her, and she returns in disguise, claiming that his love would be more important to her than freedom. Upon hearing this, the doors of love are opened for Haroun.

Lutz: The German composer Wilhelm Meyer Lutz wrote scores for burleques and operettas; and particularly for John Hollingshead's Gaiety Theatre (now demolished), which was in the Strand, London. "The Forty Thieves" was performed in 1880, and "Aladdin" in 1881.

Lecocq's operetta "Ali-Baba" was premiered in Paris in 1887.

Rimsky-Korsakov's orchestral fantasy "Scheherazade" (1888). The great Russian composer originally seems to have had a notion of a programmatic work; and initially named the four movements "The Sea and Sinbad's Ship", "The Story of the Kalendar Prince", "The Young Prince and the Young Princess" and "The Festival at Bagdad"; but then retracted the idea of linking the music too closely to the story, and referred to it later as "a kalaidoscope of fairy-tale images and patterns of Oriental character." Clearly, however, he did not retract the title; and he freely admitted that the solo violin plays the part of Scheherezade telling the tales to her stern husband. Furthermore he headed the score with a brief outline of the frame story. The fourth movement, "The Festival at Bagdad", is the background music for this page - courtesy of Elly. Thanks Elly.

Ravel's overture "Shéhérazade", inspired directly by the Arabian Nights, was written in 1899. The opera to which it was intended to belong never materialised. The composer was dissatisfied with the overture, and it remained unpublished until his death. In 1903 he returned to the Arabian theme when he wrote a song cycle (for voice and orchestra) of the same title based on three of the poems of León Leclère. Shéhérazade does not tell a story; however it paints a picture of the exotic Middle East - and came to be acknowledged as one of the composer's great masterpieces.

Romberg's musical "Sinbad". This musical by Sigmund Romberg was first performed in 1918, and starred Al Jolson, who appeared in ancient Bagdad as a comical chap named Inbad who poses as Sinbad the Sailor. The hit song was "Rock-a-bye Your Baby With a Dixie Melody".

Norton / Asche: "Chu-Chin-Chow" opened in 1916 and was a version of "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" with the character of the Chinese merchant of the title thrown in. It has been described as "the first smash hit of the British musical theatre", surviving for 2,238 performances and lighting up the British theatre during the first world war. During the musical's first run, the Lord Chamberlain's Office became involved in investigating a complaint of "near nudity and non controlled breast movement."

Nielsen's incidental music for "Aladdin". Arguably the greatest Danish composer, Carl Nielsen wrote his 'Seven pieces from Aladdin' in 1918.

Puccini's great opera "Turandot" (1926) is based on a play by Carlo Gozzi (1720-1806), Turandotte; which was in turn based on a short story from the Nights apocrypha* called The Story of Prince Calaf and the Princess of China by Pétis de la Croix; from his translations of oriental stories, collected together as Mille et un jours. For Pétis de la Croix's involvement with Galland's translation of the Nights, please see The History of the Nights. The Princess Turandot proclaims that any potential suitors must answer three riddles or be beheaded. Prince Calaf answers the riddles correctly, yet although he loves her, faced with her horror he decides to give her an escape clause and offers to die if she can discover his name before dawn. His confidence that he will gain her love is declared in the mighty aria Nessun Dorma (None Shall Sleep).

* Is not, in some uniquely Nights-like way, the Nights its own apocrypha? - Don't worry - just a rhetorical question.

Borodin / Wright / Forrest: "Kismet" (1953). This great musical is described as a "Musical Arabian Night". It is set in ancient Baghdad, where a poet goes through a series of adventures that include drowning the Wazir, appointment as Emir of Bagdad and eloping with the Wazir's wife. Hit numbers included "Stranger in Paradise" and "And This Is My Beloved". The music was adapted by Wright and Forrest from that of the great Russian Alexander Borodin. The film version, made in 1955, starred Howard Keel, Ann Blyth, Sebastian Cabot and Dolores Gray.

Porter: Cole Porter's musical "Aladdin" was premiered on American television on February 21st, 1958. The London stage production started in December 1959. Hit songs were "Aladdin", "Trust Your Destiny to a Star", "I Adore You" and "Opportunity Knocks But Once".

Film:

Walsh: "The Thief of Bagdad" (1924). Silent movie starring Douglas Fairbanks, Julanne Johnson and Anna May Wong.
'Celebrated silent version of the old fable, its camera tricks a little timeworn now but nevertheless maintaining the air of a true classic...' - Halliwell's Film and Video Guide (13th edition)

Butler: "Ali Baba Goes to Town" (1937) starred American comedian and singer Eddie Cantor.

Korda: "The Thief of Bagdad" (1940). 'A witty, magical, full-blown fantasy.' The Film Handbook - Geoff Andrew.
N.B. The American actor Milton Burle once styled himself as The Thief of Bad Gags (!!!!)

Rawlins: "The Arabian Nights" (1942). This film starring Jon Hall and Maria Montez bore little relation to the Nights, but provided an essential element of distraction in the midst of the war.

Lubin: "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" (1944)

Green: "A Thousand and One Nights" (1945). This version of Aladdin starred Cornel Wilde, Evelyn Keyes and Phil Silvers.

Wallace: "Sinbad the Sailor" (1947) starred Douglas Fairbanks Jnr, Walter Slezak, Maureen O'Hara and Anthony Quinn.
'Well staged but humourless' - Halliwell's Film and Video Guide (13th edition)

Becker: "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" (French - 1954)

Juran: "The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad" (1958) starred Kerwin Mathews and Kathryn Grant.
'Lively fantasy with narrative drive and excellent effects.' - Halliwell's Film and Video Guide (13th edition)

Lubin: "The Thief of Bagdad" (1960)

Vogel: "The Sword of Ali Baba" (1965) starred Peter Mann, Jocelyn Lane & Peter Whitney. It was an outrageous remake of "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" using some footage from 1944 movie. Frank Puglia repeated his role as Prince Cassim to link the old and new footage!

Salvi: "Ali Baba and the Seven Saracens" (Italian - 1965)

Lacey: "A Thousand and One Nights" (1968). This Spanish fantasy film starred Jeff Cooper and Raf Vallone.

Pasolini: "The Arabian Nights" or "Il Fiore delle Mille e Una Notte" (1974), one of his "Trilogy of Life" (together with "The Canterbury Tales" and "The Decameron"). This is described by Irwin as by far the best film on the subject, however cinema buffs do not seem to agree:
'Even without its extraordinary visual beauties, and the innovative aesthetic position that it represents, Arabian Nights would go down in film history as the first movie whose scenes of carnality were smothered in the sounds of laughter.' - Tony Rayns, MFB
'If [ref. the Trilogy] his intention was to celebrate the sexual and moral innocence of the peasantry in times past ... his actual achievement was to create artless sex-romps memorable mainly for their adolescent scatological humour and the frequency with which the characters' period costumes were removed.' - The Film Handbook - Geoff Andrew.

Wanamaker: "Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger" (1974) starred Patrick Wayne, Taryn Power and Jane Seymour.
'Lumpish sequel to a sequel' - Halliwell's Film and Video Guide (13th edition)

Donner: "The Thief of Bagdad" (1978)

Connor: "An Arabian Adventure" (1979). "An engaging entertainment for all the family with the requisite amount of *flashing swords, intrigue and flying carpets along with a welcome cast of old pros such as Christopher Lee, Peter Cushing and Mickey Rooney." The Daily Express.
'Resolutely well mounted, but somehow lacking that necessary fillip of Hollywood vulgarity or exuberance.' John Pym, MFB
*I can't think of a single genuine Nights story that features chivalric sword fighting. Swords are featured a lot, but only generally to swipe off limbs from defenceless people. Burton, in one of his writings, sneeringly tells us that "None of these Orientals knows the point which characterises the highest school of swordsmanship".

Yabushita: "Sinbad the Sailor" (1987) - Japanese animated comic-book - type adventure following Sinbad and friend Ali on a quest for South Seas Island which hides many precious jewels.

Castellari: "Sinbad of the Seven Seas" (1988) starred Lou (Incredible Hulk) Ferrigno & John Steiner. Sinbad and his cohorts chase the evil Wizard who has stolen sacred gems.

Disney Studios: "Aladdin" (1992). Songs by Alan Menken and Tim Rice include "Arabian Nights", "You Ain't Never had a Friend Like Me" and "A Whole New World". This genuinely classic animation bears merely a fleeting resemblance to the original (as is the case with most of these films). Don't watch it first, read the original; and view it in your imagination - you won't believe how much better it is! Then watch the film.

Illustrative: Dulac - Edmund Dulac created his famous illustrations for an edition of the "Arabian Nights' Entertainments" published in 1907. Some examples of his work have been included on this page, as in this lovely example of a courtesan sharing her bed with peacocks. Parrish - Of the commercial artists to illustrate the Nights, Maxwell Parrish is also among the greatest. He provided the illustrations for a 1907 edition by Kate Douglas Wiggin called "The Arabian Nights, Their Best-Known Tales". Chagall - The great French painter Marc Chagall turned his attention to the Arabian Nights in 1948 when he illustrated four of the tales. In 1996 a set of these thirteen lithographs fetched $376,500. This was regarded as a bargain.

Dinarzade had such a mighty desire to hear out the story of the young prince, that she awaked that night sooner than ordinary, and said, Sister, pray go on with the story you began yesterday: I am much concerned for the young prince, and ready to die for fear that he was eaten up by the Hogress and her children.

The Tellers of Tales

The aspect of the tales of that makes them unique in Arabic literature is that they are set amongst the low-downs of Arabian society; from the honest labourers to the robbers, swindlers and crooks. Virtually all other Arabic literature concerns the lofty and well-to-do.

The professional story teller, or hakawati, would perform his act in the coffee houses of the near east. Jokes and action would be emphasised. The story tellers, of a very low social status, would often borrow their books from lending libraries and commit them to memory, before disseminating them to their largely illiterate audience. Poetry was given a very high status as an art form, and large amounts were committed to memory as a matter of course in Arabian society.

Literacy was not necessarily a skill to be prized; after all, the Prophet Muhammad was illiterate and passed God's messages given to him by the Angel Gabriel to his followers from memory; and in the footsteps of their leader, Muslims are expected to be able to recite large sections of the Koran unaided.

Islam in the Arabian Nights

The religious aspect of the Arabian Nights is, to me, one of its most fascinating aspects. It is important to point out at the start that the Nights themselves are not inherently religious. They are secular stories that deal with everyday dreams of love and nightmares of terror and magic in a society with a state religion. The piety of Muslims obliges them to give a blessing to the Prophet every time his name is mentioned, the reader is obliged to don gloves before picking up the Koran etc. - and this whole wonderful culture is embraced by the authors of the stories and their characters. My intention on this page is to siphon off the Western images and mumbo-jumbo that have become associated with the Nights and get to their pure Islamic heart.

The knowledge of Islam in the Western world is appalling. I speak here as someone who loves discovering for myself the diversity of beliefs and cultures in this world of ours. It is not the remit of this page to discuss Islam in detail, there are other pages for that; however it may surprise some Western Christians to discover that Muslims and Christians worship the same God and both claim the great patriarchs Abraham, Moses and Noah as their own. This is simply because both religions, together with Judaism, came from the same stem. Muslims revere Solomon (see The Magic of the Jinn) and Jesus; and the Koran preaches tolerance with those of other faiths:

Sura 29:45 - "Dispute not, unless in kindly sort, with the people of the book; save with such of them as have dealt wrongfully with you: And say ye, 'We believe in what has been sent down to us and hath been sent down to you. Our God and your God is one, and to him are we self-surrendered'"

Having said this, it seems that the prevailing Islamic viewpoint about the Arabian Nights is that they purvey stereotypical characters and ideas about Arabia as being a land with a boundary containing a world of magical people and jinn; and that Westerners believe that this is what Arabia is really like. I'm sorry to be controversial, but, although this may have been the case in Victorian times, nowadays it is absurd. In reality, people intelligent enough to read the Nights will not be troubled by the stereotypical images - and if they read them as children, they will learn as they grow up that the world is not quite as they thought; just as Islamic children who happen to read the Arthurian romances would have to learn that Merlin doesn't exist, and Arthur never will come again. It's all part of growing up.

Nowadays Islamic authorities hate the Nights. When the stories were first being written Islam was at the height of its powers - however many Muslim countries have sadly descended into poverty. In their view one of the major reasons for this has been that they are experiencing the wrath of God for the failure of their faith, and so they are reverting to the roots of their religion. This means that there is no longer any room for the licentiousness contained in the Arabian Nights. On top of this the Nights has become the property of the West, and is esteemed as a classic by the West; which is another reason for the Islamic world to shun the story collection.

However, despite this the references to Islam in the Arabian Nights reflected the genuine religious devotion of the characters and authors; and often inspire in the reader (as they did in me) a desire to find out more about Islam. Because stories are secular the authors found it necessary to cleanse their souls by apotheosising each story with a dedication to God. This dedication is known as a Bismillah - after the similar dedications that head nearly all of the suras of the Koran "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful" (rendered in Arabic as Bismillahi 'rrahmani 'rrahim). One of the greatest of these dedications is that found at the very beginning of the work. Sir Richard Burton's translation of this can be found at the top of this page.

The Magic of the Jinn

In the introduction to his translation, Edward Lane included the following autobiographical note after several trips to Egypt between 1825 and 1835:

I have resided in a land where genii are still firmly believed to obey the summons of a magician or the owner of a talisman, and to act in occurrences of every day; and I have listened to stories of their deeds related as facts by persons of the highest respectability, and by some who would not condescend to read the tales of 'The Thousand and One Nights,' merely because they are fictions, and not written in the usual polished style of literary compositions.

Who or what were genii, jinn, or djinn?

Well, putting together a compilation of information from various reference sources, each of which appear to define the word slightly differently and add new infomation, it seems that:

Jinn originated (as with the type of fairy called Peri) in Indian and Persian mythology. Legend dictates that the jinn were created from fire, predating Adam by 2000 years. A jinn could assume any form it liked, and could make itself invisible. By cunning a man could manipulate a jinn for his own purposes. They are fabled to dwell in the mountains of Kaf which encompass the earth. Their kingdom is also known as Djinnestan. The evil jinn are hideously ugly, but the good are incredibly beautiful.

Koranic references to Jinn

When God spoke to to the Prophet Muhammad through the agency of the Angel Gabriel, it turns out that He had something to say about the jinn. This is recorded in the Holy Koran - e.g. sura 34 verse 11:- "And unto Solomon did we subject the wind, which travelled in the morning a month's journey, and a month's journey in the evening. And we made a fountain of molten brass for him. And of the Djinn were some who worked in his presence, by the will of his Lord; and such of them as swerved from our bidding will we cause to taste the torment of the flame."

This quote fostered the belief in Islamic folklore that Allah appointed Solomon controller of the good jinn - and the folklore that surrounded this is beautifully summed up in the story of 'The City of Brass'.

And after this, the people of the ship went down to divert themselves in the city, and they found one of the fishermen who had cast his net in the sea to catch fish, and he drew it up, and, lo, in it was a bottle of brass stopped with lead, which was sealed with the signet of Solomon the son of David. And the fisherman came forth and broke it; whereupon there proceeded from it a blue smoke, which united with the clouds of heaven; and they heard a horrible voice, saying: "Repentance! repentance! O Prophet of God!" Then, of that smoke there was formed a person of terrible aspect, of terrific make, whose head would reach as high as a mountain; and he disappeared from before their eyes.... And a man returned to the king [of the island], and asked him respecting this; and the king answered him: "Know that this is one of the genies whom Solomon, the son of David, when he was incensed against them, imprisoned in these bottles, and he poured lead over them, and threw them into the sea. When the fisherman casteth his net, it generally bringeth up these bottles; and when they are broken, there cometh forth from them a genie, who imagineth that Solomon is still living; wherefore he repenteth, and saith: 'Repentance! O Prophet of God!'"

I have heard that the apocryphal "Wisdom of Solomon" contains the idea that Solomon controlled the jinn. However, when seen through Christian translations in the King James Bible etc. this would certainly mean interpreting 'jinn' as 'spirits' - and things become very unclear and subject to interpretation. Maybe someone can advise me on this.

The Koran denounced a belief current at the time of the recitation, that jinns were related to God - sura 6 verse 100:- "Yet have they ascribed the Djinn to God as his associates, though He created them; and in their ignorance have they falsely ascribed to him sons and daughters. Glory be to Him! And let Him be exalted above that which they attribute to Him!"

Muhammad appears to have considered Eblis (or Satan) to have been of the jinn - sura 18 verse 48:- "When we said to the angels, 'Prostrate yourselves before Adam,' they all prostrated them save Eblis, who was of the Djinn, and revolted from his Lord's behest."

The most important Qu'ranic passage about jinn, however, was revealed to Muhammad in the mosque near Mecca known as the Masjid al-Jinn (Mosque of the Jinn), and comprises the whole of the seventy-second chapter of the Qu'ran. This chapter [sura] is called "The Djinn", and it tells us that a company of jinn listened to the messenger of God, and assured Him that they were believers in the one singular God. They went on to disclose that, in their folly, men have appealed to the jinn for refuge from God, thinking (incorrectly) that Allah would not raise anyone up to Judgement - but when the jinn looked into the secrets of heaven, they found it to be 'filled with a mighty garrison, and with flaming darts' for those who stray from the true path. The jinn also acknowledge that there are good and bad amongst them; and that 'they who go astray shall be fuel for Hell.'

The Islamic Definition of Jinn

Islam subdivides spiritual beings into angels malaikah (made from light), demons shayatin and jinn (made from fire). Jinn are divided into three categories, the ghul (pernicious spirits that can change their form), the sila (nasty spirits that cannot change shape) and the ifrit (evil spirits). None of them are noted for being particularly nice to humans. Official Islamic belief holds that jinn, like human beings, will have to face salvation or damnation.

Relations between jinn and men have even been enshrined in Islamic law - i.e. the property rights of jinn and marriages between jinn and women. It's also worth noting that Muhammad was very concerned that the revelations revealed to him in the Koran might have been the work of jinn.

There are also some types of jinn with quite specialised functions, such as the udar, the atra and the qutrub. As to their functions... well why not get a book from the library? See Recommended Reading above.

Belief in the jinn is fairly universal amongst Muslims, and the seeking of communication with jinn is a common practise in the modern Islamic world.

By the way, the correct singular spelling is jinni, the plural is jinn and the feminine is jinneyah.

So much for my summary, but for Edward Lane's in-depth treatise, please click here.

Did Carpets Really Fly?

If you know only two things about the Arabian Nights, it's about the genii and the magic carpets that are ordinary rugs until the magic spell turns them into the greatest method of escape. In fact (not myself having access to the complete Arabian Nights) I only know of two stories that involve flying carpets and one (’Alá-ed-Deen Abu-sh-Shámát) that involves a slightly more comfortable flying couch! Contrary to popular contemporary myth, flying carpets play no part in the original version of the story of Aladdin. The following scene from the story of 'Prince Ahmed and the Fairy Pari Banou' is set in Bisnagar, the ancient Hindu capital city of southern India; and is from the Grub Street translation (1706-21).

After Prince Houssain had run through that division, street by street, his thoughts fully employed on the riches he had seen, he was very much tired; which a merchant perceiving, civilly invited him to sit down in his shop, and he accepted of it; but had not been sat down long, before he saw a crier pass by with a piece of tapestry on his arm, about six foot square, and cried it at thirty purses. The prince called to the crier, and asked him to see the tapestry, which seemed to him to be valued at an exorbitant price, not only for the size of it, but for the meanness of the stuff. When he had examined it well, he told the crier, that he could not comprehend how so small a piece of tapestry, and of so indifferent appearance, could be set at so high a price. The crier, who took him for a merchant, replied, If this price seems so extravagant to you, your amazement will be greater, when I tell you I have orders to raise it to forty purses, and not to part with it under. Certainly, answered Prince Houssain, it must have something very extraordinary in it, which I know nothing of. You have guessed it, sir, replied the crier, and will own it, when you come to know, that whoever sits on this piece of tapestry may be transported in an instant where-ever he desires to be, without being stopped by any obstacle.

It has to be said that the description of the flying tapestry ride in that story is rather disappointing. The carpet is more of a dematerialising machine, like the famous Star Trek transporter device, than a flying experience.

Islamic tradition dictates that Solomon "had a carpet of green silk, on which his throne was placed, being of a prodigious length and breadth, and sufficient for all his forces to stand on, the men placing themselves on his right hand, and the spirits [or Jinn] on his left; and that when all were in order, the wind, at his command, took up the carpet, and transported it, with all that were upon it, wherever he pleased; the army of birds at the same time flying over their heads, and forming a kind of canopy, to shade them from the sun." This belief has clearly stemmed from several verses of the Koran referring to Solomon; for example Sura 38 verses 33-35:- "We also made a trial of Solomon, and placed a phantom on his throne: whereupon he returned to us (in penitence). He said, O my Lord! pardon me, and give me a dominion that may not be to any one beside me, for thou art the liberal giver. So we subjected the wind to him; it ran softly at his bidding, whithersoever he directed it."
In Sura 27 verses 38 to 40 Solomon asks the Jinn bring the throne of the Queen of Saba [Sheba] to him, which they promise to do in the twinkling of an eye - and verses 20 to 26 of Sura 27 show clear evidence of Solomon's relationship with the birds. In summary, although there is no mention of a flying carpet in the Koran, if Solomon had complete control of the wind, surely he could make it pick up a carpet for him whenever he wished? And, as if by magic, the adventures of Solomon in the story of 'The City of Brass' attest to just those powers over the wind:

[Solomon] sent to our king, saying to him: 'Behold, I have arrived: therefore submit thyself to my authority, and acknowledge my mission, and break thine idol, and worship the One, the Adored God, and marry to me thy daughter according to law, and say thou, and those who are with thee, I testify that there is no deity but God, and I testify that Solomon is the Prophet of God. If thou say that, peace and safety shall be thy lot. But if thou refuse, thy defending thyself from me in this island shall not prevent thee: for God hath commanded the wind to obey me, and I will order it to convey me unto thee on the carpet, and will make thee an example unto others.'

Magic carpets were also described in detail in the Egyptian and the Tibetan Book of the Dead and the Hindu Samarangana Sutra-dhara of King Bhojarajas of Dhara. Many ancient cultures believed in flying machines as a reality - and many Hindu documents, including the Ramayana, tell of objects called vimanas (the celestial and aerial carriages that carry Ravan, Rama and Sita in my summary of the story). The Samarangana Sutra-dhara even tells the reader how to make one:-

"Strong and durable must the body of the Vimana be made, like a great flying bird of light material. Inside one must put the mercury engine with its iron heating apparatus underneath. By means of the power latent in the mercury which sets the driving whirlwind in motion, a man sitting inside may travel a great distance in the sky. The movements of the Vimana are such that it can vertically ascend, vertically descend, move slanting forwards and backwards. With the help of the machines human beings can fly in the air and heavenly beings can come down to earth."

With all the crackpot notions going round about flying machines that were built by the ancients; there was however a genuine reason for the ancients to write documents such as those mentioned here. The contemporary kings and gods had to be greater than mere human beings - and what better way to make them greater than to give them the power of flight; in report if not in fact. So the contemporary historians would have been called upon to create legends that their gods or masters had been airborne. And if you're going to give your king the power of flight; why not give him a machine in or on which to fly. After all, as far as the ordinary people were concerned (which included the original Arabian Nights audiences); as long as it was possible for the gods, kings and prophets to perform the feat of magical flight, then magical flight was a reality. Therefore, what was written about by the scribes became reality, and conversely, what was real was written about. In relatively recent times in Europe we can look at the eulogies that the court scribes or poets would write in honour of their monarch, at the threat of at least their salary or career if the monarch considered one word to be out of place; these being invariably accepted unquestioningly by the populace.

So that's the mythological reality, but what about the physical reality? Real flying carpets were made from layered paper glued with gelatin and dried in a kiln. Appearing in Tibet, magic carpets were linked to Tantric ritual (i.e. ritual of the Tantra sect of Tibetan Buddhism). The carpet and pilot would be suspended from a ravine and hopefully(!) dropped into a natural flight path. Any volunteers?

So, it seems incredible, but yes - carpets really did fly.

Sindbad's Monsters, Myth or Reality?

Once again, there is more to the tales of Sindbad than mere myth. His tales are undoubtedly based on the real voyages of merchants trading with the East Indies and China in the period of the Abbasid dynasty (see "Who was Caliph Harun al-Rashid?"). The story provides some great examples of the usefulness of the Arabian Nights to historians. For instance, there is a list of minerals and foodstuffs that Sindbad imported into Baghdad. It is also true that there is more to the tales of wonderful creatures and hideous monsters that the adventurer has to endure on his journey.

For instance: tales two and five tell of a massive bird called a roc, so large that an egg appeared as a tremendous dome to Sindbad.

Methought a cloud had come over the sun, but it was the season of summer, so I marvelled at this and, lifting my head, looked steadfastly at the sky, when I saw that the cloud was none other than an enormous bird, of gigantic girth and inordinately wide of wing, which as it flew through the air veiled the sun and hid it from the island. At this sight my wonder redoubled and I remembered a story I had heard aforetime of pilgrims and travellers, how in a certain island dwelleth a huge bird, called the "roc," which feedeth its young on elephants, and I was certified that the dome which caught my sight was none other than a roc's egg. As I looked and wondered at the marvellous works of the Almighty, the bird alighted on the dome and brooded over it with its wings covering it and its legs stretched out behind it on the ground, and in this posture it fell asleep. (Glory be to Him who sleepeth not!)

Funnily enough, Marco Polo's associate Rustigiello of Pisa had written about some very similar creatures in The Travels of Marco Polo, in particular in the section concerning the island of Madagascar:

The people of the island report that at a certain season of the year, an extraordinary kind of bird, which they call a rukh, makes its appearance from the southern region. In form it is said to resemble the eagle, but it is incomparably greater in size; being so large and strong as to seize an elephant with its talons, and lift it into the air, from whence it lets it fall to the ground, in order that when dead it may prey upon the carcase. Persons who have seen this bird assert that when the wings are spread they measure sixteen paces in extent, from point to point; and that the feathers are eight paces in length, and thick in proportion. Messer Marco Polo, conceiving that these creatures might be griffins, such as are represented in paintings, half birds and half lions, particularly questioned those who reported their having seen them as to this point; but they maintained that their shape was altogether that of birds, or, as it might be said, of the eagle.

Marco Polo had a reputation for exaggeration, and it should be said that in the Middle Ages he was known as 'Il Milione' ("Marco Million") because of his dextrous manipulation of figures. However, he travelled the very same routes of the traders who created and spread the story of Sindbad the Sailor, and must have heard the same stories that the author of Sindbad the Sailor alludes to. Indeed the roc or rukh was part of ancient Persian folklore, and is mentioned in the Jatakas (a collection of Indian folklore dating from the 4th century BC) - but, as they say, truth is stranger than fiction. It has been suggested to me that the roc may have been inspired by the moa, a real bird, native to New Zealand. As the Encyclopaedia Britannica says, "There were about 25 species ranging in size from that of a turkey to larger than that of an ostrich; some stood up to 3 metres (10 feet) high". There was also a bird called the Aepyornis, or "Elephant Bird", which became extinct soon after the first humans set forth on Madagascar. The eggs of this bird are the largest ever found.

Who was Caliph Harun al-Rashid?

Thereon, his deep eye laughter-stirr'd
With merriment of kingly pride,
Sole star of all that place and time,
I saw him -- in his golden prime,
The good Haroun Alraschid.

Alfred Lord Tennyson Recollections of the Arabian Nights.

The Caliph who features in many of the stories of the Nights (often strolling the streets incognito) was a real person, and provides the reader with an aspect of the collection that makes it so interesting to scholars. He lived from 766 to 809 A.D., reigning from 786; and was the fifth caliph of the Abbasid dynasty of Baghdad, effectively controlling the Muslim empire. The Abbasids were descended from an uncle of Muhammad, and the dynasty ruled from 750 until 1258.

In 762 Caliph al-Masur built the round city of Baghdad, with the royal residence at the centre. Baghdad flourished under the reign of Harun al-Rashid, and his love of art and music engendered a blossoming of culture. The wealthy caliphate sponsored much extravagance. Many great buildings were erected in honour of Rashid; and Baghdad was "the place to be".

After the death of Rashid, the Abbasid dynasty fell into a long, slow decline. Whilst many of the stories concerning Rashid may have been written in the Abbasid period, is is dangerous to make this assumption. Half way through the ninth century the caliphs largely lost their power to the religious authorities guided by scholars of Sunni Islam, and this left room for the Turks to gradually take over control - so the stories may have been written at a later period, nostalgic of a time when the Islamic nation was under one ruler.

But, sir, says Scheherazade to the sultan, it is fit your majesty should know why this knocking happened so late at the lady's house, and the reason was thus: The caliph Haroun Alraschid was accustomed to walk abroad in disguise very often by night, that he might see with his own eyes, if every thing was quiet in the city, and that no disorders were committed in it.

Who were King Shahriyar and Shahrazad?

The frame story of the Arabian Nights concerns King Shahriya and his brother King Shahzaman, Shahriya's vizier (or wazir, chief minister) and the vizier's two daughters, Shahrazad and Dunyzad. Once again, the names can be spelt in such a multiplicity of different ways depending on the particular source used. In this article I use Dawood's spellings (see recommended reading), however rest assured, Shahrazad and Scheherazade are one and the same.

As to who they were, it seems that the greatest authorities just shrug their shoulders on the issue. The names of these chief characters are Iranian and this story may be Indian in origin. Many great story collections began in India - a classic example being the 4th century Panchatantra, which also has a frame story.

The only remaining evidence is from the first paragraph of the story itself- and whilst that story may be fantastic, we must bear in mind that many Biblical characters from Old Testament times have been identified as historical characters (e.g. the Biblical king Ahasuerus has been identified with the historical Persian king Xerxes I [c.519-465 B.C.]), and one major character of the Nights was definitely real - please see Who was Caliph Harun al-Rashid? Although there was no Sultan Shahryar in reality who shared the same name, all the Sassanid kings are nonetheless identifiable to historians.

The story sets the scene as being Central Asia, or "the islands or peninsulae of India and China", and tells us that Shahriya (and his father in some versions) were kings of the Banu Sasan; who commanded great armies etc. The phrase "Banu Sasan" literally means "children of Sasan"*. Sasan (1st century A.D.) was the founder of the Sassanian dynasty of kings, otherwise known as the Sassanids, and a lineal descendant of Xerxes I of Persia. Shahzaman became king of Samarkand in Barbarian land. From this information I can only draw the following basic facts and leave the reader to his/her own conclusions:

• The Sassanids were rulers of Persia. From the 2nd century B.C. the Persian empire had been ruled by the Parthians. In 226 A.D. Persian tribal king Ardashir I defeated the Parthians in battle and established the Sassanid dynasty. He then went on to conquer India and Armenia (but not China). One of the most successful Sassanid kings was Khosrau I (528 - 579 A.D., reigning from 531). He conquered the Caucasus, the Black Sea and much of Central Asia; and was a legendary hero. By 641 A.D., however, the Arab invasion had gradually managed to overcome the Persians, and the game was over for the Sassanid dynasty.

• In the period of 220 - 589 A.D. China was going through a very rough period, known as the Period of Disunion; during which the country crumbled into as many as six dynasties, all ruling at the same time. I am currently unaware of any Persian involvement, however. In the context of the Nights the word 'China' designates a vaster empire than that covered by modern China - basically most of the land eastwards of Persia.

• Samarqand is the capital of Samarqand Wiloyat (Samarqand Oblast) in central Uzbekistan. For notes on this city please see Miscellaneous Information below.

If it is true that one of the Sassanid Kings was the model for Shahriya, then the following questions would have to be answered.

1. What relationship did his rule have with the countries of India and China, and in particular why is this king described in some accounts as living in the lands of India and (more particularly) China?

2. What do the names of the characters of the story mean in English?
   Actually, I think I've found part of the answer to this one. According to Lane's notes, Shahriya is Persian for "Friend of the City", and Shahzaman is a compound of Persian and Arabic signifying "King of the Age" (basically meaning "the current King").

3. Are there any similarities in his life to the events of the story in the slightest degree? For instance, any connection of the suggested candidates with China or Samarquand would be very interesting.

Well, I am in the early stages of my research on this, but I would like to conclude by postulating my theory that King Khosrau I may have been the inspiration behind, or an ancestor of the fabled King Shahriya. Surely I can't be the first person to inquire about this. There is not anywhere near enough evidence, but is it not intriguing? His rule, and the splendour of his court, were the reasons for the acknowledgement, in Islamic times, of Khosrau as the "model pre-Islamic ruler, to be emulated by Muslim princes." The Nights' Tale of the Three Apples refers to him - "they had dressed her in raiment and ornaments that suited the mighty Chosroë kings." The most valuable source for information on Khosrau I is in an epic poem called Shah nameh (The Epic of Kings) by Persian poet Firdawski (c.940 - c.1020).

Shah (as in Shahriya) simply means king, and seems to prefix many Persian names. The last Sassanid king was called Khosrau II - and he had two generals - Shahrbaraz and Shahin.

*N.B. Elsewhere in the Nights the phrase "Banu Sasan" strangely refers to the low-life of society; i.e. story tellers and thieves.

Miscellaneous Information

• Who were the Calenders, or Kalendars? - Well, Islamic mysticism is called Sufism. In Sufism, there are branches, or sects, called dervishes. The sect in question was known as the Qalandariyah, its members being Qalandaris. This wandering dervish sect is traditionally said to have been founded by a Spanish Arab called Yusuf. They came from Central Asia and made their first appearance in Damascus in 1213. They were the cause of unrest in the Ottoman empire; and predominately lived in Iran and Azerbaijan until the 17th century. They appear in the story of "The Porter and the Three Ladies of Baghdad".

• The Locations of the Nights Stories: Baghdad and Basra. Unfortunately Baghdad and Basra have been largely laid waste several times since the times of the earliest stories of the Nights. It was the Mongols who, laying waste to everything in their path, destroyed the original cities of Baghdad and Basra, although one of my sources tells me that the ruins of one of the original gates of Baghdad, called Bab al-Wastani, still survives. I would love to be able to go over and check this out, but being a Brit. I don't fancy trying my luck at the moment. Maybe someone could pop over there for me and check this out. Basra and Baghdad are both, sadly, being targetted by U.S. and British bombing missions. I gather, interestingly, that there is an island at Basra in the Shatt al-Arab waterway called Sinbad Island, marking the fact the Sinbad always set off on his voyages from Basra. It was once a very attractive holiday resort, with outdoor restaurants and gardens, but suffered extensive bombing in the Gulf war.

• The Locations of the Nights Stories: Samarquand. Samarqand is the capital of Samarqand Wiloyat (Samarqand Oblast) in central Uzbekistan. It was an important trade centre on the route between China and the Mediterranean, as immortalised in James Elroy Flecker's The Golden Journey to Samarkand. Unfortunately it was subsequently obliterated by Genghis Khan. Marco Polo visited the city in the late 13th century, and reported that: "Samarcan is a noble city, adorned with beautiful gardens, and surrounded by a plain, in which are produced all the fruits that man can desire. The inhabitants, who are partly Christians and partly Mohametans, are subject to the dominion of a nephew of the Grand Khan, with whom, however, he is not upon amicable terms, but on the contrary there is perpetual strife and frequent wars between them". Samarqand was subsequently ruled (from 1369) by the noted despot Taimur, known in the West as Taimerlane, and immortalised by Christopher Marlowe as Tamburlaine the Great (first performed in 1590). The outskirts of the modern ex-Soviet city are typically colourless; however the domes and minarets in the centre, built by Taimur, are very beautiful. The remains of the old city destroyed by the Mongols lie a kilometre and a half away on the road to Tashkent, and are currently under excavation. This 220 hectare area is now called Afrasiab, and there is a museum devoted to the findings of the excavations. However, be warned - Uzbekistan is not noted for its friendliness to tourists, to whom the state has retained the attitude of the communist USSR.

• The Locations of the Nights Stories: Cairo. If you would wish to travel to a real Arabian Nights location, it would have to be Cairo. Cairo has managed to survive, and consequently turned into an urban sprawl. The Mongol empire fortunately collapsed before they could engulf Egypt. Many of Cairo's notable historic buildings would have certainly been around during the time of the composition of the Arabian Nights stories concerning Cairo. The Citadel, famous for its mosques and fort, was built in 1176 A.D. Cairo is not featured in the Nights to as great an extent as the aforementioned cities of Baghdad and Basra; however one example of a story that features Cairo is "The Tale of Nur al-Din Ali and His Son" from "The Tale of the Three Apples".

One night he lay down to sleep dejected and heavyhearted, and saw in a dream a speaker who said to him, "Verily thy fortune is in Cairo. Go thither and seek it." So he set out for Cairo, but when he arrived there, evening overtook him and he lay down to sleep in a mosque.

• The Locations of the Nights Stories: Damascus. Damascus in Syria is also safe to westerners; and always has been, despite its proximity to Iraq (a mere one hundred miles away). It is a beautiful historical city, (in fact it is one of the world's oldest continually inhabited cities) and like Cairo, that history has not been destroyed by its various invaders. St. Paul, according to the Bible (Acts 9:11) lived on the Via Recta, the main street of the old city, also known as the "Street Called Straight". In fact, on this same street, St. Paul's Chapel marks the spot where the disciples lowered St. Paul out of a window in a basket one night so that he could escape from the Jews. It has two hundred mosques, seventy of which are still in use, and one of which is one of the greatest mosques ever, the Omayyad Mosque, which tourists are free to visit, so long as women and men in shorts put on the supplied black robes. Damascus, having been the home of the Omayyad dynasty, features in the story of 'The City of Brass'.

• What is meant by the "Grub Street" version? As readers of my other page devoted to The Beggar's Opera will be aware, Grub Street was a street in London noted for being inhabited by hacks, poets and pamphleteers. For further information about Grub Street, please go to that page. The Grub Street version of the Nights is the translation that was quickly made of Galland's pivotal French edition - see The History of the Nights. For a list of the stories contained in the Grubb Street version, please click here.

• Where did the phrase "Open Sesame!" come from? - "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves", of course. But other than that, no-one knows. It may just have been made up by Galland.

• Currency in the Nights. Reference is made in the Nights to two currency units, dirhams and dinars. Dinars are still the major currency unit of Iraq. One dinar is worth twenty dirhams.

Save your dirhams, and consider them the best salve for the wounds of the world.

Thus, some time later, when I found a profit of two thousand dinars, I praised the Lord and gave my brother one half and kept the other for myself.

Glossary of Obscure Arabian Nights Terms
(not covered above)

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And he continued to rule for many joyful years until he was visited by the Destroyer of all earthly pleasures, the Leveller of mighty kings and humble peasants, the Spoiler of worldly mansions, the Sunderer of societies and the Dark minister of the graveyard.

May Allah have mercy upon him.

© John Crocker

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